Adab (city)

Ancient Sumerian city between Girsu and Nippur

31°56′49″N 45°58′8″E / 31.94694°N 45.96889°E / 31.94694; 45.96889Site notesExcavation dates1885, 1890, 1902, 1903–1905, 2001, 2016-2019ArchaeologistsW.H. Ward, J.P. Peters, W. Andrae, E.J. Banks, Nicolò Marchetti

This article contains cuneiform script. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of cuneiform script.

Adab (Sumerian: 𒌓𒉣𒆠 Adab^ki,^[1] spelled UD.NUN^KI[2]) was an ancient Sumerian city between Girsu and Nippur, lying about 35 kilometers southeast of the latter. It was located at the site of modern Bismaya or Bismya in the Al-Qādisiyyah Governorate of Iraq. The site was occupied at least as early as the 3rd Millenium BC, through the Early Dynastic, Akkadian Empire, and Ur III empire periods, into the Kassite period in the mid-2nd millennium BC. It is known that there were temples of Ninhursag/Digirmah, Iskur, Asgi, Inanna and Enki at Adab and that the city-god of Adab was Parag'ellilegarra (Panigingarra) "The Sovereign Appointed by Ellil".^[3][4]

Not to be confused with the small, later (Old Babylonian and Sassanian periods) archaeological site named Tell Bismaya, 9 kilometers east of the confluence of the Diyala and the Tigris rivers, excavated by Iraqi archaeologists in the 1980s.^[5]

The 400-hectare site consists of a number of mounds distributed over an area about 1.5 kilometres (0.93 mi) long and 3 kilometres (1.9 mi) wide, consisting of a number of low ridges, nowhere exceeding 12 metres (39 ft) in height, lying somewhat nearer to the Tigris than the Euphrates, about a day's journey to the southeast of Nippur. It was surrounded by a double wall. In total there are twelve mounds of which two (Mounds X and XII) are the result of sand dredged from the Iturungal canal, though some rooms and 20 tablets were found on the northern extension of X. Persons reported working on mound XIV and mound XVI but there is no record where they lay. Some private houses were noted outside the east wall.^[6] Notable mounds were

• Mound I - Palace, Isin/Larsa - Old Babylonian Periods. About 33 meters by 25 meters. Several hundred mostly fragmentary tablets
• Mound II - Cemetery and House by Bath. Seven burials (5 intramural graves, 2 tombs).
• Mound III - Administrative and light industrial near west corner. Early Dynastic, Akkadian, and Ur III levels.
• Mound IV - The Library. Over 2,000 tablets found here. Akkadian period administrative center.
• Mound V - E-Sar/E-mah Temple. Mound 11 meters high and 90 meters in circumference. Ten occupation levels, atop pure sand, ranging from Early Dynastic I to Ur III. Inscribed bricks of Kurigalzu indicated restoration in the Kassite period.
• Mound VI - Large walls with inscribed bricks of Amar-Sin. Thought to be a temple.

Initial examinations of the site of Bismaya were by William Hayes Ward of the Wolfe Expedition in 1885 and by John Punnett Peters of the University of Pennsylvania in 1890, each spending a day there and finding one cuneiform tablet and a few fragments.^[7][8] Walter Andrae visited Bismaya in 1902, found a tablet fragment and produced a sketch map of the site.^[9]

Excavations were conducted there on behalf of the University of Chicago and led by Edgar James Banks for a total of six months beginning on Christmas Day of 1903 until May 25, 1904. Work resumed on September 19, 1904 but was stopped after 8 1/2 days by the Ottoman authorities. Excavation resumed on March 13, 1905 under the direction of Victor S. Persons and continued until the end of June, 1905. During the excavation of a city gate thousands of sling balls (some stone, most of baked clay), some flattened, were found which the excavator interpreted as the result of a battle. While Banks was better trained than the earlier generation of antiquarians and treasure hunters and used more modern archaeological methods the excavations suffered seriously from having never been properly published.^{[10][11][12][13]} The Banks expedition to Bismaya was well documented by the standards of the time and many objects photographed though no final report was ever produced due to personal disputes. In 2012, the Oriental Institute re-examined the records and objects returned to the institute by Banks and produced a "re-excavation" report. One issue is that Banks and Persons purchase objects from Adab locally while there and it is uncertain which object held at the museum were excavated vs being bought.^[6]

On Mound V, on what was originally thought to be an island but has since been understood to have resulted from a shift in the canal bed, stood the temple, E-mah, with a ziggurat. The temple had two occupational phases. E-Sar, the first (Earlier Temple), constructed of plano-convex bricks, was from the Early Dynastic period. That temple was later filled in with mud bricks and sealed off with a course of baked brick and bitumen pavement. A foundation deposit of Adab ruler E-iginimpa'e dated to Early Dynastic IIIa was found on that pavement containing "inscribed adze-shaped copper object (A543) with a copper spike (A542) inserted into the hole at its end and two tablets, one of copper alloy (A1160) and one of white stone (A1159)".^[14]

𒀭𒈤 𒂍𒅆𒉏𒉺𒌓𒁺 𒃻𒑐𒋼𒋛 𒌓𒉣𒆠 𒂍𒈤 𒈬𒈾𒆕 𒌫𒁉𒆠𒂠 𒋼𒁀𒋛

^d-mah/ e2-igi-nim-pa-e3/ GAR-ensi/ adab{ki}/ e2-mah mu-na-du/ ur2-be2 ki-sze3/ temen ba-si

"For the goddess Digirmah, E-iginimpa'e, ensi-GAR of Adab, built the E-Mah for her, and buried foundation deposits below its base"^[15]

The second temple (Later Temple) was faced by baked bricks, some with an inscription of the Ur III ruler Shulgi naming it the temple of the goddess Ninhursag.^[16]

Adab was evidently once a city of considerable importance, but deserted at a very early period, since the ruins found close to the surface of the mounds belong to Shulgi and Ur-Nammu, kings of the Third Dynasty of Ur in the latter part of the third millennium BC, based on inscribed bricks excavated at Bismaya. Immediately below these, as at Nippur, were found artifacts dating to the reign of Naram-Sin and Sargon or the Akkadian Empire, c. 2300 BC. Below these there were still 10.5 metres (34 ft) of stratified remains, constituting seven-eighths of the total depth of the ruins. A large palace was found in the central area with a very large well lined with plan-convex bricks, marking it as being from the Early Dynastic period.^[17]

Besides the remains of buildings, walls, and graves, Banks discovered a large number of inscribed clay tablets of a very early period, bronze and stone tablets, bronze implements and the like.^[6] Of the tablets, 543 went to the Oriental Institute and roughly 1100, mostly purchased from the locals rather than excavated, went to the Istanbul Museum. The latter are still unpublished.^[18][19] Brick stamps, found by Banks during his excavation of Adab state that the Akkadian ruler Naram-Sin built a temple to Inanna at Adab, but the temple was not found during the dig, and is not known for certain to be E-shar. The two most notable discoveries were a complete statue in white marble, apparently the earliest yet found in Mesopotamia, now in the Istanbul Archaeology Museums, bearing the inscription, translated by Banks as "E-mach, King Da-udu, King of, Ud-Nun", now known as the statue of Lugal-dalu and a temple refuse heap, consisting of great quantities of fragments of vases in marble, alabaster, onyx, porphyry and granite, some of which were inscribed, and others engraved and inlaid with ivory and precious stones.^[6][20]

Of the Adab tablets that ended up at the University of Chicago, sponsor of the excavations, all have been published and also made available in digital form online. ^[21] After the end of excavation, on a later personal trip the region in 1913, Banks purchased thousands of tablets from a number of sites, many from Adab, and sold them sold piecemeal to various owners over years. Some have made their way into publication. Many more have subsequently made their way into the antiquities market from illegal looting of the site and some have also been published.^[22] A number ended up in the collection of the Cornell University.^{[23][24][25][26]}

In response to widespread looting which began after the war 1991, the Iraq State Board of Antiquities and Heritage conducted an excavation at Adab in 2001.^[27] The site has now been largely destroyed by systematic looting which increased after the war in 2003, so further excavation is unlikely. On the order of a thousand tablets from that looting, all from the Sargonic Period, have been sold to various collectors and many are being published, though missing archaeological context. Of the 9,000 published tablets from the Sargonic Period (Early Dynastic IIIb, Early Sargonic, Middle Sargonic and Classic Sargonic) about 2,300 came from Adab.^[28]

From 2016 to 2019, the University of Bologna and the Iraqi State Board of Antiquities and Heritage led by Nicolò Marchetti conducted a program, the Qadis survey, of coordinated remote sensing and surface surveys in the Qadisiyah province including at Bismaya (QD049). Results included a "Preliminary reconstruction of the urban layout and hydraulic landscape around Bismaya/Adab in the ED III and Akkadian periods".^[29][30] A previously unknown palace was discovered and the extent of looting identified. It was determined that the city was surrounded by canals. The overall occupation of the site in the Early Dynastic III period was determined to have been 462 hectares.^[31] The Qadis survey showed that Adab had a 24-hectare central harbor, with a maximum length of 240 meters and a maximum width of 215 meters. The harbor was connected to the Tigris river via a 100-meter–wide canal.^[32][33] In 2001 a statue became available to the Baghdad Museum which was inscribed "Temple Builder, of the goddess Nin-SU(?)-KID(?): Epa'e, King of Adab".^[34]

Adab is mentioned in late 4th millennium BC texts found at Uruk but no finds from that period have been recovered from the site.^[35]

Adab was occupied from at least the Early Dynastic Period. According to Sumerian text Inanna's descent to the netherworld, there was a temple of Inanna named E-shar at Adab during the reign of Dumuzid of Uruk. In another text in the same series, Dumuzid's dream, Dumuzid of Uruk is toppled from his opulence by a hungry mob composed of men from the major cities of Sumer, including Adab.

A king of Kish, Mesilim, appears to have ruled at Adab, based on inscriptions found at Bismaya. One inscription, on a bowl fragment reads "Mesilim, king of Kish, to Esar has returned[this bowl], Salkisalsi being patesi of Adab".^[36] One king of Adab, Lugal-Anne-Mundu, appearing in the Sumerian King List, is mentioned in few contemporary inscriptions; some that are much later copies claim that he established a vast, but brief empire stretching from Elam all the way to Lebanon and the Amorite territories along the Jordan.^[37] Adab is also mentioned in some of the Ebla tablets from roughly the same era as a trading partner of Ebla in northern Syria, shortly before Ebla was destroyed by unknown forces.^[38]

A marble statue was found at Bismaya inscribed with the name of another king of Adab, variously translated as Lugal-daudu, Da-udu, and Lugaldalu.^[39][40] An inscription of Eannatum, ruler of Lagash was also found at Adab.^[41]

Meskigal, governor of Adab under Lugalzagesi of Uruk, changed allegiance to Akkad and became governor under Sargon of Akkad. He later joined other cities including Zabalam in a rebellion against Rimush son of Sargon and second ruler of the Akkadian Empire and was defeated and captured. About 380 of the published tablets from Adab date to the time of Meskigal (ED IIIB/Early Sargonic). This rebellion occurred during the first two regnal years of Rimush. A year name of Rimush reads "The year Adab was destroyed" and an inscription reads "Rimus, king of the world, was victorious over Adab and Zabala in battle and struck down 15,718 men. He took 14,576 captives". Various governors, including Lugal-gis, Sarru-alli, Ur-Tur, and Lugal-ajagu then ruled Adab under direct Akkadian control. About 1000 tablets from this period (Middle Sargonic) have been published.^[42] In the time of Sargon's grandson Naram-Sin Adab, again joined a "Great Rebellion" against Akkad and was again defeated.^[43] In the succeeding period (Classical Sargonic) it is known there there were temples to Ninhursag/Digirmah (E-Mah), Iskur, Asgi, Inanna and Enki. By the end of the Akkadian period, Adab was occupied by the Gutians, who made it their capital.^[44] Enheduanna, daughter of Sargon and first known poet, wrote a number of temple hymns including one to the temple of the goddess Ninhursag and her son Ashgi at Adab.^[45]

Several governors of the city under Ur III are also known including Ur-Asgi and Habaluge under Ur III ruler Shulgi (and Amar-Sin) and Ur-Asgi II under Shu-Sin. A brick inscription found at Adab marked Shulgi dedicating a weir to the goddess Ninhursag. Inscribed bricks of Amar-Sin were also found at Adab.^[46][47] A temple for the deified Shi-Sin was built at Adab by Habaluge.

"Sü-Sín, beloved of the god Enlil, the king whom the god Enlil lovingly chose in his (own) heart, mighty king, king of Ur, king of the four quarters, his beloved god, Habaluge, governor of Adab, his servant, built for him his beloved temple."^[48]

About 200 inscribed objects, mainly tablets but also a few bricks and clay sealings, from the Old Babylonian period of the early 2nd millenium BC from Adab are known. The city of Adab is also mentioned in the Code of Hammurabi (c. 1792 – c. 1750 BC).^[49] There is a Sumerian language comic tale, dating to the Old Babylonian period, of the Three Ox-drivers from Adab.^[50] Inscribed bricks of the Kassite dynasty ruler Kurigalzu I (c. 1375 BC) were found at Adab, marking the last verified occupation of the site.^[17]

The Sumerian King List (SKL) names only one ruler of Adab (Lugalannemundu). The following list should not be considered complete:

Portrait or inscription	Ruler	Approx. date and length of reign (Middle Chronology)	Comments, notes, and references for mentions
Early Dynastic IIIa period (c. 2600 – c. 2500 BC)
	Lugal-Anne-Mundu 𒈗𒀭𒉌𒈬𒌦𒆕	Uncertain; this ruler may have fl. c. 2600 – c. 2340 BC sometime during the Early Dynastic (ED) III period (90 years)	Historicity uncertain Said on the SKL to have held the title of "king" of not just Adab; but, all of Sumer Known from an inscription bearing the title "King of the Four Quarters of the World"
	Lumma	Uncertain; this ruler may have fl. c. 2600 – c. 2500 BC sometime during the ED IIIa period	Historicity certain[51]
	Nin-kisalsi 𒎏𒆦𒋛	reigned c. 2500 BC	Historicity certain Known from an inscription bearing the title "Governor of Adab" temp. of Mesilim of Kish[51]
	Medurba	Uncertain; these rulers may have fl. c. 2600 – c. 2500 BC sometime during the EDIIIa period	Historicity certain temp. of Ur-Pabilsag of Ur[51]
	Epa'e[34]		Historicity certain temp. Meskiagnun of Ur[51]
Portrait or inscription	Ruler	Approx. date and length of reign (MC)	Comments, notes, and references for mentions
Early Dynastic IIIb period (c. 2500 – c. 2350 BC)
	Lugal-dalu 𒈗𒁕𒇻	r. c. 2500 BC	Historicity certain temp. Ur-Nanshe of Lagash[51] Known from an inscribed statue bearing the title "King of Adab"
	Paraganedu	Uncertain; this ruler may have fl. c. 2500 – c. 2400 BC sometime during the EDIIIb period	Historicity certain temp. Akurgal of Lagash[51]
	E-iginimpa'e 𒂍𒅆𒉏𒉺𒌓𒁺	r. c. 2400 BC	Historicity certain Known from an inscribed votive tablet bearing the title "Governor of Adab" temp. Ush of Umma[51]
	Mug-si 𒈮𒋛	r. c. 2400 BC	Historicity certain Held the title of "Governor of Adab" temp. Enakalle of Umma[51]
	Ursangkesh	Uncertain; these rulers may have fl. c. 2400 – c. 2350 BC sometime during the EDIIIb period	Historicity certain temp. Lugal-kinishe-dudu of Uruk[51]
	Enme'annu		Historicity certain temp. Enannatum II of Lagash[51]
Portrait or inscription	Ruler	Approx. date and length of reign (MC)	Comments, notes, and references for mentions
Proto-Imperial period (c. 2350 – c. 2270 BC)
	Hartuashgi	Uncertain; this ruler may have fl. c. 2350 – c. 2270 BC sometime during the Proto-Imperial and/or Akkadian period(s)	Historicity certain temp. Urukagina of Lagash[51]
	Meskigal 𒈩𒆠𒅅𒆷	r. c. 2350 BC	Vassal governor under: Lugalzagesi of Uruk (r. c. 2350 – c. 2316 BC) Sargon of Akkad (r. c. 2335 – c. 2279 BC) Rimush of Akkad (r. c. 2279 – c. 2270 BC)[42][51]
Portrait or inscription	Ruler	Approx. date and length of reign (MC)	Comments, notes, and references for mentions
Akkadian period (c. 2270 – c. 2154 BC)
	Sarru-alli	r. c. 2270 BC
	Lugal-ajagu	r. c. 2250 BC	Vassal governor of Adab under the Akkadian empire[52]
	Lugal-gis	r. c. 2220 BC	Vassal governors of Adab under the Akkadian empire temp. of Shar-Kali-Sharri (r. c. 2217 – c. 2193 BC)
	Ur-tur	r. c. 2200 BC
	Amar-Suba[citation needed]	r. c. 2180 BC	Vassal governor of Adab under the Akkadian empire temp. of Dudu (r. c. 2189 – c. 2169 BC)
Portrait or inscription	Ruler	Approx. date and length of reign (MC)	Comments, notes, and references for mentions
Gutian period (c. 2154 – c. 2119 BC)
	Urdumu	r. c. 2130 BC	Vassal governor of Adab temp. of Gudea of Lagash (r. c. 2144 – c. 2124 BC)

• 
  UD-NUN-KI, "City of Adab" on the statue of Lugal-dalu, with rendering in early Sumero-Akkadian cuneiform.
• 
  Headless votive statue, from Adab, Iraq, early dynastic period. Museum of the Ancient Orient, Turkey
• 
  Headless votive statue, from Adab, Iraq, early dynastic period. Museum of the Ancient Orient, Istanbul
• 
  Head of a votive statue, from Adab, Iraq, early dynastic period. Museum of the Ancient Orient, Turkey
• 
  Game board, Bismaya, mound IVa, Isin-Larsa to Old Babylonian period, 2000-1600 BC, baked clay, Oriental Institute Museum
• 
  Cuneiform inscription on a statue from Adab, mentioning the name of Lugal-dalu and god ESAR of Adab
• 
  Headless statue, the name of the deity Ninshubur is mentioned on the right shoulder. From Adab. 2600-2370 BCE. Iraq Museum
• 
  Plaque with a sexual scene, Bismaya, mound IV, Isin-Larsa to Old Babylonian period, 2000-1600 BC, baked clay, Oriental Institute Museum
• 
  Akkadian Period, lapis lazuli seal with six-eared hero subduing a lion and a water buffalo, from Bismaya, ca. 2350-2150 BC

• Cities of the Ancient Near East
• Chronology of the ancient Near East

• Abid, Basima Jalil, and Hayder Aqeel Abed Al-Qaragholi, "The Hybrid Animal (šeg9-bar) Unpublished Cuneiform Texts from Akkadian Period from Adab city", ISIN Journal 4, pp. 77-87, 2022
• [22]Banks, Edgar James, "Inlaid and Engraved Vases of 6500 Years Ago.(Illustrated.)", The Open Court, 11: 4, pp. 685-693, 1906
• [23]Banks, Edgar James, "The Statue of King David and What it Teaches-(Illus.)", The Open Court, 4: 3, pp. 212-219, 1906
• Cooper, Jerrold S., "Studies in Mesopotamian Lapidary Inscriptions IV: A Statuette from Adab in the Walters art gallery", Oriens Antiquus 23, pp. 159–61, 1984
• Farber, Walter, "Two Old Babylonian Incantation Tablets, Purportedly from Adab (A 633 and A 704)", Mesopotamian Medicine and Magic, Brill, pp. 189-202, 2018
• Kraus, F. R., "Briefe aus dem Istanbuler Museum", Altbabylonische Briefe in Umschrift und Übersetzung 5, leiden:Brill, 1972
• Langdon, S., "Ten Tablets from the Archives of Adab", Revue d'Assyriologie et d'archéologie orientale 19.4, pp. 187-194, 1922
• Maiocchi, Massimo, "The Sargonic Archive of Me-sá-sag7, Cup-bearer of Adab", City Administration in the Ancient Near East. Proceedings of the 53e Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale, vol. 2., Eisenbrauns, pp. 141-152, 2010
• Maiocchi, Massimo, "Women and Production in Sargonic Adab", The Role of Women in Work and Society in the Ancient Near East, edited by Brigitte Lion and Cécile Michel, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, pp. 90-111, 2016
• Caroline Nestmann Peck, "The Excavations at Bismaya", Ph.D. dissertation, University of Chicago, 1949
• Pomponio, F., "The Rulers of Adab", in Associated Regional Chronologies for the Ancient Near East and the Eastern Mediterranean. History & Philology, W. Sallaberger and I. Schrakamp (eds.), ARCANE 3, Turnhout, pp. 191–195, 2015
• Sallaberger, W., "The Palace and the Temple in Babylonia", in G. Leick (ed.), The Babylonian World, Oxon 1 New York, pp. 265-275, 2007
• Visicato, G., "New Light from an Unpublished Archive of Meskigalla, Ensi of Adab, Housed in the Cornell University Collections", in L. Kogan et al. (eds.), City Administration in the Ancient Near East. Proceedings of the 53e Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale. 2. Babel und Bibel5, Winona Lake, pp. 263-271, 2010
• Karen Wilson, "The Temple Mound at Bismaya", in Leaving No Stones Unturned: Essays on the Ancient Near East and Egypt in Honor of Donald P. Hansen, Penn State University Press, pp. 279–99, 2002 ISBN 978-1-57506-055-2
• Yang Zhi, "The Excavation of Adab", Journal of Ancient Civilizations, Vol. 3, pp. 16–19, 1988
• Zhi, Yang, "A study of the Sargonic Archive from Adab", Dissertation, The University of Chicago, 1986
• Zhi, Yang, "The King Lugal-ane-mundu", Journal of Ancient Civilizations 4, pp. 55–60, 1989
• Zhi, Yang, "The Name of the City Adab", Journal of Ancient Civilizations 2, pp. 121–25, 1987

• Oriental Institute page for Bismaya: Recovering the Lost City of Adab
• Tablets from Adab at CDLI
• NY Times note on the Bismaya excavations dated 1904
• Bismaya "re-excavation" Publication project funded by Shelby White - Leon Levy Program
• Translation of Three Ox-Drivers from Adab - ETCSL

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Rulers of the Ancient Near East

Territories/ dates [1][2][3][4][5] Egypt Canaan Ebla Mari Kish/ Assur Akshak/ Akkad Uruk Adab Umma Lagash Ur Elam 4000–3200 BCE Naqada I Naqada II Egypt-Mesopotamia relations Pre-Dynastic period (4000–2900 BCE) Susa I Uruk period (4000–3100 BCE) (Anu Ziggurat, 4000 BCE) (Anonymous "King-priests") Susa II (Uruk influence or control) 3200–3100 BCE Proto-Dynastic period (Naqada III) Early or legendary kings: Upper Egypt Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Lower Egypt Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Nat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash 3100–2900 BCE Early Dynastic Period First Dynasty of Egypt Narmer Menes Neithhotep♀ (regent) Hor-Aha Djer Djet Merneith♀ (regent) Den Anedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird Canaanites Jemdet Nasr period (3100–2900 BCE) Proto-Elamite period (Susa III) (3100–2700 BCE) 2900 BCE Second Dynasty of Egypt Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Early Dynastic Period I (2900–2700 BCE) First Eblaite Kingdom First kingdom of Mari Kish I dynasty Jushur, Kullassina-bel Nangishlishma, En-tarah-ana Babum, Puannum, Kalibum 2800 BCE Kalumum Zuqaqip Atab Mashda Arwium Etana Balih En-me-nuna Melem-Kish Barsal-nuna Uruk I dynasty Mesh-ki-ang-gasher Enmerkar ("conqueror of Aratta") 2700 BCE Early Dynastic Period II (2700–2600 BCE) Zamug, Tizqar, Ilku Iltasadum Lugalbanda Dumuzid, the Fisherman Enmebaragesi ("made the land of Elam submit")[6] Aga of Kish Gilgamesh Old Elamite period (2700–1500 BCE) Indus-Mesopotamia relations 2600 BCE Third Dynasty of Egypt Djoser (First Egyptian pyramids) Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni Early Dynastic Period III (2600–2340 BCE) Sagisu Abur-lim Agur-lim Ibbi-Damu Baba-Damu Kish II dynasty (5 kings) Uhub Mesilim Ur-Nungal Udulkalama Labashum Lagash En-hegal Lugal- shaengur Ur A-Imdugud Ur-Pabilsag Meskalamdug (Queen Puabi) Akalamdug Enun-dara-anna Mes-he Melamanna Lugal-kitun Adab Nin-kisalsi Me-durba Lugal-dalu 2575 BCE Old Kingdom of Egypt Fourth Dynasty of Egypt Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis Ur I dynasty Mesannepada "King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk 2500 BCE Phoenicia (2500-539 BCE) Second kingdom of Mari Ikun-Shamash Iku-Shamagan Ansud Sa'umu Ishtup-Ishar Ikun-Mari Iblul-Il Nizi Kish III dynasty Ku-Baba♀ Akshak dynasty Unzi Undalulu Uruk II dynasty Ensha- kushanna Mug-si Umma I dynasty Pabilgagaltuku Lagash I dynasty Ur-Nanshe Akurgal A'annepada Meskiagnun Elulu Balulu Awan dynasty Peli Tata Ukkutahesh Hishur 2450 BCE Fifth Dynasty of Egypt Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas Enar-Damu Ishar-Malik Ush Enakalle Elamite invasions (3 kings)[6] Shushun- tarana Napilhush 2425 BCE Kun-Damu Eannatum (King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam) 2400 BCE Adub-Damu Igrish-Halam Irkab-Damu Kish IV dynasty Puzur-Suen Ur-Zababa Urur Lugal-kinishe-dudu Lugal-kisalsi E-iginimpa'e Meskigal Ur-Lumma Il Gishakidu (Queen Bara-irnun) Enannatum Entemena Enannatum II Enentarzi Ur II dynasty Nanni Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II Kiku-siwe-tempti 2380 BCE Sixth Dynasty of Egypt Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah Adab dynasty Lugalannemundu "King of the four quarters of the world" 2370 BCE Isar-Damu Enna-Dagan Ikun-Ishar Ishqi-Mari Invasion by Mari Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter[6] Ukush Lugalanda Urukagina Luh-ishan 2350 BCE Puzur-Nirah Ishu-Il Shu-Sin Uruk III dynasty Lugalzagesi (Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer) 2340 BCE Akkadian Period (2340–2150 BCE) Akkadian Empire Sargon of Akkad Rimush Manishtushu Akkadian Governors: Eshpum Ilshu-rabi Epirmupi Ili-ishmani 2250 BCE Naram-Sin Lugal-ushumgal (vassal of the Akkadians) 2200 BCE First Intermediate Period Seventh Dynasty of Egypt Eighth Dynasty of Egypt Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Ibi Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Second Eblaite Kingdom Third kingdom of Mari (Shakkanakku dynasty) Ididish Shu-Dagan Ishma-Dagan (Vassals of the Akkadians) Shar-Kali-Sharri Igigi, Imi, Nanum, Ilulu (3 years) Dudu Shu-turul Uruk IV dynasty Ur-nigin Ur-gigir Lagash II dynasty Puzer-Mama Ur-Ningirsu I Pirig-me Lu-Baba Lu-gula Ka-ku Hishep-Ratep Helu Khita Puzur-Inshushinak 2150 BCE Ninth Dynasty of Egypt Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut Ur III period (2150–2000 BCE) Nûr-Mêr Ishtup-Ilum Ishgum-Addu Apil-kin Gutian dynasty (21 kings) La-erabum Si'um Kuda (Uruk) Puzur-ili Ur-Utu Umma II dynasty Lugalannatum (vassal of the Gutians) Ur-Baba Gudea Ur-Ningirsu Ur-gar Nam-mahani Tirigan 2125 BCE Tenth Dynasty of Egypt Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Uruk V dynasty Utu-hengal 2100 BCE (Vassals of UR III) Iddi-ilum Ili-Ishar Tura-Dagan Puzur-Ishtar (Vassals of Ur III)[7] Ur III dynasty "Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad" Ur-Nammu Shulgi Amar-Sin Shu-Sin 2025-1763 BCE Amorite invasions Ibbi-Sin Elamite invasions Kindattu (Shimashki Dynasty) Middle Kingdom of Egypt Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV Third Eblaite Kingdom (Amorites) Ibbit-Lim Immeya Indilimma (Amorite Shakkanakkus) Hitial-Erra Hanun-Dagan (...) Lim Dynasty of Mari (Amorites) Yaggid-Lim Yahdun-Lim Yasmah-Adad Zimri-Lim (Queen Shibtu) Old Assyria Puzur-Ashur I Shalim-ahum Ilu-shuma Erishum I Ikunum Sargon I Puzur-Ashur II Naram-Sin Erishum II Isin-Larsa period (Amorites) Dynasty of Isin: Ishbi-Erra Shu-Ilishu Iddin-Dagan Ishme-Dagan Lipit-Eshtar Ur-Ninurta Bur-Suen Lipit-Enlil Erra-imitti Enlil-bani Zambiya Iter-pisha Ur-du-kuga Suen-magir Damiq-ilishu Dynasty of Larsa: Naplanum Emisum Samium Zabaia Gungunum Abisare Sumuel Nur-Adad Sin-Iddinam Sin-Eribam Sin-Iqisham Silli-Adad Warad-Sin Rim-Sin I (...) Rim-Sin II Uruk VI dynasty: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk Sîn-kāšid Sîn-iribam Sîn-gāmil Ilum-gamil Anam of Uruk Irdanene Rim-Anum Nabi-ilišu Sukkalmah dynasty Siwe-Palar-Khuppak Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ 1800–1595 BCE Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Abraham (Biblical) Kings of Byblos Kings of Tyre Kings of Sidon Yamhad (Yamhad dynasty) (Amorites) Old Assyria (Shamshi-Adad dynasty 1808–1736 BCE) (Amorites) Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi (Non-dynastic usurpers 1735–1701 BCE) Puzur-Sin Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi (Adaside dynasty 1700–722 BCE) Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II First Babylonian dynasty ("Old Babylonian Period") (Amorites) Sumu-abum Sumu-la-El Sin-muballitSabium Apil-Sin Sin-muballit Hammurabi Samsu-iluna Abi-eshuh Ammi-ditana Ammi-saduqa Samsu-Ditana Early Kassite rulers Second Babylonian dynasty ("Sealand Dynasty") Ilum-ma-ili Itti-ili-nibi Damqi-ilishu Ishkibal Shushushi Gulkishar mDIŠ+U-EN Peshgaldaramesh Ayadaragalama Akurduana Melamkurkurra Ea-gamil Second Intermediate Period Sixteenth Dynasty Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt ("Hyksos") Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Sakir-Har Khyan Apepi Khamudi Mitanni (1600–1260 BCE) Kirta Shuttarna I Parshatatar 1531–1155 BCE New Kingdom of Egypt Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ahmose I Amenhotep I Third Babylonian dynasty (Kassites) Agum-Kakrime Burnaburiash I Kashtiliash III Ulamburiash Agum III Karaindash Kadashman-harbe I Kurigalzu I Kadashman-Enlil I Burnaburiash II Kara-hardash Nazi-Bugash Kurigalzu II Nazi-Maruttash Kadashman-Turgu Kadashman-Enlil II Kudur-Enlil Shagarakti-Shuriash Kashtiliashu IV Enlil-nadin-shumi Kadashman-Harbe II Adad-shuma-iddina Adad-shuma-usur Meli-Shipak II Marduk-apla-iddina I Zababa-shuma-iddin Enlil-nadin-ahi Middle Elamite period (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha Thutmose I Thutmose II Hatshepsut♀ Thutmose III Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb Hittite Empire Ugarit Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ Elamite Empire Shutrukid dynasty Shutruk-Nakhunte 1155–1025 BCE Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI Third Intermediate Period Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II Phoenicia Kings of Byblos Kings of Tyre Kings of Sidon Kingdom of Israel Saul Ish-bosheth David Solomon Syro-Hittite states Middle Assyria Eriba-Adad I Ashur-uballit I Enlil-nirari Arik-den-ili Adad-nirari I Shalmaneser I Tukulti-Ninurta I Ashur-nadin-apli Ashur-nirari III Enlil-kudurri-usur Ninurta-apal-Ekur Ashur-dan I Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur Mutakkil-Nusku Ashur-resh-ishi I Tiglath-Pileser I Asharid-apal-Ekur Ashur-bel-kala Eriba-Adad II Shamshi-Adad IV Ashurnasirpal I Shalmaneser II Ashur-nirari IV Ashur-rabi II Ashur-resh-ishi II Tiglath-Pileser II Ashur-dan II Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("Second Dynasty of Isin") Marduk-kabit-ahheshu Itti-Marduk-balatu Ninurta-nadin-shumi Nebuchadnezzar I Enlil-nadin-apli Marduk-nadin-ahhe Marduk-shapik-zeri Adad-apla-iddina Marduk-ahhe-eriba Marduk-zer-X Nabu-shum-libur Neo-Elamite period (1100–540 BCE) 1025–934 BCE Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos") Simbar-shipak Ea-mukin-zeri Kashshu-nadin-ahi Eulmash-shakin-shumi Ninurta-kudurri-usur I Shirikti-shuqamuna Mar-biti-apla-usur Nabû-mukin-apli 911–745 BCE Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt Tefnakht Bakenranef Kingdom of Samaria Kingdom of Judah Neo-Assyrian Empire Adad-nirari II Tukulti-Ninurta II Ashurnasirpal II Shalmaneser III Shamshi-Adad V Shammuramat♀ (regent) Adad-nirari III Shalmaneser IV Ashur-Dan III Ashur-nirari V Eight Babylonian Dynasty Ninurta-kudurri-usur II Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina Shamash-mudammiq Nabu-shuma-ukin I Nabu-apla-iddina Marduk-zakir-shumi I Marduk-balassu-iqbi Baba-aha-iddina (five kings) Ninurta-apla-X Marduk-bel-zeri Marduk-apla-usur Eriba-Marduk Nabu-shuma-ishkun Nabonassar Nabu-nadin-zeri Nabu-shuma-ukin II Nabu-mukin-zeri Humban-Tahrid dynasty Urtak Teumman Ummanigash Tammaritu I Indabibi Humban-haltash III 745–609 BCE Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt ("Black Pharaohs") Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Neo-Assyrian Empire (Sargonid dynasty) Tiglath-Pileser† Shalmaneser† Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon† Sennacherib† Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi† Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon† Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II Assyrian conquest of Egypt Assyrian conquest of Elam 626–539 BCE Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III Neo-Babylonian Empire Nabopolassar Nebuchadnezzar II Amel-Marduk Neriglissar Labashi-Marduk Nabonidus Median Empire Deioces Phraortes Madyes Cyaxares Astyages 539–331 BCE Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt (First Achaemenid conquest of Egypt) Kings of Byblos Kings of Tyre Kings of Sidon Achaemenid Empire Cyrus Cambyses Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes IV Darius III Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt 331–141 BCE Argead dynasty and Ptolemaic Egypt Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetis♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter♀ Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Lathyros Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra V♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Berenice IV Epiphanea♀ Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XV Caesarion Arsinoe IV♀ Hellenistic Period Argead dynasty: Alexander III Philip III Alexander IV Antigonid dynasty: Antigonus I Seleucid Empire: Seleucus I Antiochus I Antiochus II Seleucus II Seleucus III Antiochus III Seleucus IV Antiochus IV Antiochus V Demetrius I Alexander III Demetrius II Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes 141–30 BCE Kingdom of Judea Simon Thassi John Hyrcanus Aristobulus I Alexander Jannaeus Salome Alexandra♀ Hyrcanus II Aristobulus II Antigonus II Mattathias Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Parthian Empire Mithridates I Phraates Hyspaosines Artabanus Mithridates II Gotarzes Mithridates III Orodes I Sinatruces Phraates III Mithridates IV Orodes II Phraates IV Tiridates II Musa Phraates V Orodes III Vonones I Artabanus II Tiridates III Artabanus II Vardanes I Gotarzes II Meherdates Vonones II Vologases I Vardanes II Pacorus II Vologases II Artabanus III Osroes I 30 BCE–116 CE Roman Empire (Roman conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Judea Syria 116–117 CE Province of Mesopotamia under Trajan Parthamaspates of Parthia 117–224 CE Syria Palaestina Province of Mesopotamia Sinatruces II Mithridates V Vologases IV Osroes II Vologases V Vologases VI Artabanus IV 224–270 CE Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Ardashir I Shapur I Hormizd I Bahram I Bahram II Bahram III Narseh Hormizd II Adur Narseh Shapur II Ardashir II Shapur III Bahram IV Yazdegerd I Shapur IV Khosrow Bahram V Yazdegerd II Hormizd III Peroz I Balash Kavad I Jamasp Kavad I Khosrow I Hormizd IV Khosrow II Bahram VI Chobin Vistahm 270–273 CE Palmyrene Empire Vaballathus Zenobia♀ Antiochus 273–395 CE Roman Empire Province of Egypt Syria Palaestina Syria Province of Mesopotamia 395–618 CE Byzantine Empire Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 618–628 CE (Sasanian conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Shahrbaraz Sahralanyozan Shahrbaraz Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Khosrow II Kavad II 628–641 CE Byzantine Empire Ardashir III Shahrbaraz Khosrow III Boran♀ Shapur-i Shahrvaraz Azarmidokht♀ Farrukh Hormizd Hormizd VI Khosrow IV Boran Yazdegerd III Peroz III Narsieh Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 639–651 CE Muslim conquest of Egypt Muslim conquest of the Levant Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia Chronology of the Neolithic period Rulers of Ancient Central Asia ^ Rulers with names in italics are considered fictional. ^ Hallo, W.; Simpson, W. (1971). The Ancient Near East. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. pp. 48–49. ^ "Rulers of Mesopotamia". cdli.ox.ac.uk. University of Oxford, CNRS. ^ Thomas, Ariane; Potts, Timothy (2020). Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins. Getty Publications. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-60606-649-2. ^ Roux, Georges (1992). Ancient Iraq. Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables). ISBN 978-0-14-193825-7. ^ a b c Per Sumerian King List ^ Unger, Merrill F. (2014). Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-62564-606-4.